The quest for green concrete is on the rise globally, due to the environmental hazards (emission of CO2 and particulate matters) usually associated with cement and coarse aggregate production. This study was carried to evaluate the possibility of enhancing the mechanical properties of wood shavings-concrete with cassava starch solution. Sets of concrete were produced with wood shavings at the rate of 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5% and 4% (by weight of the coarse aggregate). 2% (by weight of the cement) dried cassava starch was employed as organic admixture during the concrete production. Conventional mix ratio of 1:2:4, and water to cement ratio (w/c) of 0.6 was also adopted for the concrete production. The slump of the fresh mortar, and the density, compressive and flexural strengths of the hardened concrete were tested in accordance to ASTM International procedures. Results obtained from the laboratory tests revealed that the wood savings had negative impact on the mechanical properties of the concrete. The compressive and flexural strengths of the concrete decreased, as the quantity of the wood shavings increased from 0% to 4%. When compared to the results obtained from concrete produced without cassava starch, it was observed the cassava starch enhanced the compressive and flexural strengths of the concrete produced. Regression analysis of the obtained results affirmed that wood shavings and cassava starch can influenced the mechanical properties of concrete, as concrete produced with cassava starch had higher a Pearson correlation coefficient, than the concrete produced without cassava starch. Results obtained from this study showed the feasibility of producing lightweight green concrete, by using low volume of wood shavings and cassava starch as admixture.

This study evaluated the naturally extruded exudates/resin from plants of inorganic origin with eco-friendly and environmentally non-hazardous materials derived from tree trunks. Exudates/viscous adhesive is then embedded into the concrete beam after layers of different thickness and applied directly to the steel reinforcement. This study further aimed to determine the role of exudates/resins in harmful attacks on reinforcement by water tightness and durability (resistance) and modifications of steel reinforcement surface due to coating. In comparison, the results of the flexural strength exhibited at the maximum for the controlled sample is 27.86% compared to the corroded with -20.75% and coated sample of 27.87%, respectively. Differential mean values and percentile ranges were checked to be (0.55kN and 1.43%) for the controlled, (0.66kN and 1.04%) corroded and (0.52kN and 1.69%) coated. Corroded specimens fail with a lower load applications and high yielding, whereas coated specimens have a higher load to failure and lower yield occurrence. The results further confirmed that the flexural failure loads of the controlled and coated specimens maintain a narrow range of values over the corroded specimens at moderate, reduced and lower loads. The comparative results showed that the maximum value of the controlled state is -38.58% compared to 63.61% corroded and controlled -37.96%. The recorded mean and percentage difference values were examined and computed to be (0.26kN and 0.93%), corroded (0.26kN and 2.42%) and coated (0.27kN and 0.92%). The results showed a lower failure deflection load in the controlled and coated samples with a reduced value over the corroded sample with a higher failure deflection load and an increasing value compared to the reference range (controlled) and the layered (coated) sample. The comparative obtained results during and after the corrosion test for the maximum value of the rebar diameter is 0.53% compared to the corroded -0.74% and the coated sample 0.85%. The computed mean differential and percentile values were (0.02% and 0.03%), the corroded values were (0.03kN and 0.11%) and the coated values were (0.01kN and 0.11%). The results showed the effect of corrosion on the mechanical properties of reinforcing steel with a smaller diameter, where the average value and the percentage of corroded samples decreased, while the controlled and coated samples showed a preserved condition, with an increase in the diameter of the coating emanating from the varying coating thicknesses from the exuates /resin. The cross-sectional area of the reinforcing steel mean and percentile values calculated from the corroded values are (0.02 and 6.19%) and the coated values (0.02 mm and 5.21%). The results obtained showed the effect of corrosion on the mechanical properties of reinforcing steel with a decrease in the diameter of the reinforcement in the corroded sample, while the coated sample showed an increase in the thickness of the exudate paste layer. The differential calculated average and percentage yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (6.93MPa and 5.46%) and (2.53MPa and 0.02%), the corrosion value was (2.81 MPa and 5.01%) and (2.53 MPa and 0.02%). the values covered are (3.98MPa and 5.46%) and (2.56MPa and 0.01%). From the data obtained and compared, the yield strength and tensile strength values of the corroded sample take into account the mean and percentile values reduced with load damage with low application. The comparative strainn ratio obtained from the calculated maximum values for the mean and percentile values for the control was -3.19% compared to the corroded and overlaid values of 3.29% and -2.88%, respectively. The mean differential and percentile values obtained for the control were (0.42 and 0.3%), corroded values (0.42 and 0.32%) and closed values (0.43 and 0.31%). The results showed that the corroded sample had a higher percentage of deformation due to lower breaking load and higher yield strength, while the coating had a higher breaking load with lower yield strength. The calculated data for the maximum percentage of reinforcement weight before corrosion test for controlled, corroded and coated values were 0.05%, 0.05% and 0.07%. The maximum comparison values recorded after the corrosion test for the controlled sample remained the same, with no trace of a corrosive effect, as it was collected in fresh water, for the corroded and coated samples the values obtained were -6.82% and 7.76%, respectively.

The sheltering execution plan of a 3D printed shelter is planned to demonstrate the design of an existing camp, but it is built using printable sheltering units rather than tents and prefabricated cabins. The Zaatari Refugee camp in Jordan is selected as a case study for multiple reasons. The Zaatari Camp is located in Jordan, and was established on a large scale within short notice. The camp is built in a country ranked as one of the most expensive in the Middle East. The economy of the country and the needs of refugees make it an attractive case study to implement printable sheltering units, allowing for the investigation of the performance of a printable camp against existing sheltering camps covering aspects of time, cost, occupancy, and implementation perspectives. Achieving positive performances of a printable camp in Jordan will ensure that camps will be suitable and affordable in other countries with stronger economies, along with cheaper construction rates. The 3DP shelter is found to be a cost-effective solution in Jordan, which means that the printed shelters can achieve higher cost efficiency measures in less expensive countries in the Middle East, such as Turkey.

The performance of reinforced concrete structures, as in other composite members, depends on the bond between the steel and the concrete which ensures that load is transferred safely between the two materials. The research involved the direct application of environmentally and eco-friendly extracted exudates/resins used to control the effect of corrosion attacks by coating steel with varying thicknesses, embedded in concrete structures and immersed in sodium chloride (NaCl) solution for corrosion accelerated process. Laboratory experimental samples reflected the acid level of sea salt concentration in reinforced concrete cubes. The data for comparison of maximum obtained values are failure bond load are corroded -41.594% against 78.166% and 80.194% controlled and coated, bond strength is -34.227% against 73.201% and 69.943% and maximum slip are -42.731% against 102.034% and 113. The summarized computed and compared results of failure bond load, bond strength and maximum slip of the controlled, corroded and coated samples showed that the effect of sodium chloride as detailed in the "2.2 Experimental procedures" has adversely affected the mechanical properties of reinforcing steel of uncoated (corroded) samples which has resulted to poor performances, low load at failure state, less bond strength and slippage. The coated samples exhibited the potential of sustaining the negative effect of corrosion on reinforcing steel and by forming good contact and interlock between concrete and reinforcing steel by reducing the stress existing in the concrete surroundings. Results showed that the diameter of corroded reinforcement decreases by a maximum of -0.771% and the coated increases by 0.831%, for the cross-sectional area corroded has a maximum reduction value of -13.163% and the coated increases by 20.74%, the weight loss and increase in corroded is -22.887 % decreased (loss) and coated increased by 34.929% (gain). Regarding the mechanical properties of reinforcing steel, the effect of corrosion on reinforcing steel shows a decrease in the cross section of the rebar diameter compared to the nominal diameter before testing, weight reduction is also observed, an increase in the cross-sectional area, an increase in the diameter and minute increase in weight resulting from coating material as compared with the nominal reinforcement, which is due to differences in the thickness of the layered materials. It can be concluded that the exudate / resin studied has shown effective inhibiting properties against corrosion attack and can be used as a corrosion inhibitor

The study examined the usefulness of exudates/resin extrudes from tree trunk as inhibitive material against corrosion attacks to reinforcing steel embedded in concrete structures and exposed to high levels of salt in coastal marine areas. The maximum recorded average and percentile values are controlled 45.546% against corroded and coated values of 36.881% and 78.747% and with differentially potential values of the bond strength controlled 1.409MPa and 19.437% against corroded values of 0.276MPa and 7.174% and coated values 1.409MPa and 20.317%. The lower load failure characteristic has been attributed to the effect of corrosion attack resulting in rib-less (smooth) and surface modification, the effect of corrosion resulted to the swollen surface with peeled off fibre while coated samples exhibited highly resistive characteristics to corrosion attacks showing the effectiveness of exudates/resin as an anti-corrosive material in curbing the scourge and menace faced by reinforced concrete structures built in the coastal the marine region with unique and severe characteristics of high salinity. Comparatively, obtained results showed decreased slippage failure load exhibition by the corroded samples over the controlled and coated samples with a highly lower value range to the reference with coated samples exhibiting higher slippage failure load with increased values over-controlled. From the result of average values and percentile values difference, the failure bond load, bond strength, and maximum slip all failed at low load applications with decreased percentile values compared to controlled and coated concrete cube samples. This reduction in rebar diameter and the cross-sectional area has resulted in higher failure bond loads, lower bond strengths, and lower slippages, and these characteristics revealed the effects of corrosion on the reinforcing steel that resulted from surface modification, reduction of rebar fibre, and high yield to load applications. From the results obtained and presented in the figures, the effect of corrosion on uncoated and coated reinforcing steel are enumerated, in figures 3 and 6b on the diameter of rebar, it can be seen that the diameter of uncoated decreased by the maximum value of -0.841% and coated increased by 0.922%, for the cross-sectional area, corroded has maximum reduction value -20.649% and coated increased by and 26.022%, weight loss, and gain are corroded -19.905% decreased (loss) and coated 36.334% increase (gain).