Detergents are amphiphilic compounds with crucial roles in the extraction, purification and stabilization of integral membrane proteins and in experimental studies of their structure and function. One technique that is highly dependent on detergents for solubilization of membrane proteins is solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, where detergent micelles often serve as the best membrane mimetic for achieving particle sizes that tumble fast enough to produce high-resolution/high-sensitivity spectra. The best quality NMR spectra use detergents with partial or complete deuteration, which eliminate interfering proton signals from the detergent itself and eliminate potential proton relaxation pathways and strong dipole-dipole interactions that contribute line broadening effects. Another technique for which deuterated detergents have been crucial to obtain structural information about membrane proteins in solution is small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). Use of a deuterated detergent exploits the intrinsic neutron scattering length difference between hydrogen and deuterium, such that detergent is matched-out in D2O and only signal from the membrane protein remains visible in the scattering profile, simplifying data analysis. We provide an updated review on the properties, chemical synthesis and applications of detergents that are commercially available and/or that have been synthesized with partial or complete deuteration, and that have been used in NMR or SANS studies on membrane proteins. Specifically, the detergents are sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), lauryldimethylamine-oxide (LDAO), n-octyl-β-D-glucoside (β-OG), n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside (DDM) and fos-cholines including dodecylphosphocholine (DPC). We also consider effects of deuteration, detergent screening and guidelines for detergent selection.

The area under castor oil cultivation in Iran has varied over the years. In 2019, the area under castor oil cultivation in Iran was about 11.02 thousand hectares, according to the FAO report (FAO, 2021). This is while in 1996, the area under castor oil cultivation was higher and then decreased. Castor oil can be extracted using a variety of methods, including cold pressing, solvent extraction, and screw pressing. These methods utilize different tools and techniques to separate the oil from the castor seeds. Deserts are often associated with areas of high atmospheric pressure, particularly subtropical high-pressure zones. This high pressure is due to sinking air, which warms and dries, leading to low rainfall and desert conditions. Conversely, low-pressure systems typically bring cloudy, rainy weather, not desert conditions. Chromosomes are string-like structures that store genetic information and are located in the cell nucleus. These structures are made up of DNA and protein and pass genetic information to new cells during cell division. The number of chromosomes in a castor bean seed is 20 (2n=20). This number means that each castor bean cell has 20 chromosomes, which are located in pairs (10 pairs) in the cell nucleus. Castor (Ricinus communis) is important in Iran as a valuable plant, both medicinally and industrially. Castor oil is traditionally used in traditional medicine for various treatments and is also known as an important source for oil production in industry. In this research we concluded that castor bean plants can be cultivated in desert environments, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, due to their drought tolerance and adaptability to various soil types. While they prefer well-drained, fertile soil and a specific temperature range, castor beans can thrive with minimal rainfall and even tolerate slight soil acidity. Their deep-rooted nature allows them to draw moisture from deeper soil layers, making them suitable for water-scarce regions. In this research we concluded that the toxicity of raw castor beans depends on the percentage and size of the ricin toxin. Although the lethal dose for adults has been identified as about 4 to 8 seeds, reports of human poisoning from these seeds are very rare. In addition we concluded that Castor beans contain a highly toxic protein called ricin. During the oil extraction process, high heat inactivates and destroys this protein. After processing and purifying castor ricin, the final product is completely purified and becomes usable. Castor oil is one of the oldest medicinal plants in the world. Determining the genetic diversity of plants, including castor oil, plays an important role in identifying superior genotypes for use in plant breeding programs. For this purpose, the genetic diversity and relationship of castor oil ecotypes, resistance to salinity, and response to organic and mineral fertilizers were investigated in this study.